![]() For this reason, the skin of amphibians has been recognized as a storehouse of bioactive molecules with pharmacological potential. These were found to influence different processes in living systems, acting, for example, as myotropic, immunomodulatory, antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant compounds. Extensive research on this topic has accumulated over the years and many of the molecules secreted by amphibians have been isolated and characterized to date. The skin secretions of amphibians have been historically used as ethno-pharmaceutical drugs in a variety of cultures. In the second case, antimicrobial substances, in association with the commensal microbiota, prevent the colonization or infection by fungi, bacteria, and viruses ( Brunetti et al., 2021). In the first case, the compounds might irritate mucous membranes, cause an unpleasant sensation (e.g., pain or distastefulness), or even be highly toxic and lethal for their aggressors. Granular glands are classified into different types depending on their histological characteristics and, on the other hand, synthesize and release compounds (e.g., amines, peptides and alkaloids) that participate in several defense mechanisms against potential aggressors, which can be either large predators or pathogenic microorganisms ( Bucciarelli et al., 2016 Demori et al., 2019). Other functions of the mucus include the prevention of water loss and the maintenance of a moist surface for skin gas exchange when the animal leaves the water. Mucous glands produce a slippery mucus film, made basically of mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteoglycans, which minimize underwater friction and also make the animal slippery to predators. Different multicellular skin glands produce compounds involved in both vital processes and defense strategies ( Clarke, 1997 Heiss et al., 2009). The skin of amphibians exerts a broad spectrum of functions, which are fundamental for their homeostasis and interaction with the environment. ![]()
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